英语写作题难度影响因素及控制

论文摘要

关于写作测试的研究大多集中在确定写作能力的构成和评分信度的控制两个方面,而对于写作题命题的研究,尤其是写作题难度的研究却仍然相对较少。实际上,写作题的难度对写作测试的质量有很大影响。Bachman指出,只有难度合适时,测试分数所能提供的信息才能达到最大,而难度太低或者太高都会影响分数的意义。从心理语言学的角度看,难度太低可能会降低应试者的兴趣而不能写出最能体现其水平的文章,也可能会因为考生都写得很好而降低测试的区分度。而如果题目太难,考生也可能会因此失去兴趣,而且由于大部分考生都写不好,也不能得到最能体现考生水平的作文,所以只有当作文题难度适中时,该测试才可能达到最高水平。本论文的主要目的是研究影响以英语为外语的写作考试中,写作题的难度主要受哪些因素影响,并在此基础上探讨控制写作题难度的方法。由于影响写作能力的因素众多且考生个人因素千变万化,要想穷尽所有因素是不可能的,所有本论文在文献研究的基础上提出了几个主要考虑因素。这些因素包括考生的语言能力、话题知识、篇章知识、试题的指示语、考试时间等。就研究方法来说,本论文采用了文献研究和实证研究相结合的方式,在每一章中首先回顾相关的主要研究成就及理论上的难度模型,然后通过若干实证研究探讨这些理论模型是否符合中国学生的实际情况。作者认为,只有通过实证的检验,才能够确定中国学生写作时体验到的真正的难度而非理论难度,这样的结论对命题者会更有意义。为了加强本研究的实际意义,本论文在实证研究的基础上设计了一套确定写作题难度的简单模型。这一模型认为,一道写作题的难度WTD (Writing Task

论文目录

• 内容摘要
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Chapter One Writing and Testing Writing
• 1.1 Nature of Writing
• 1.2 The Writing ability
• 1.2.1 The cognitive model
• 1.2.2 The inclusive model
• 1.2.3 The context-specific model
• 1.3 Approaches to writing tests
• 1.3.1 Indirect test of writing
• 1.3.2 Direct test of writing
• 1.4 The writing task difficulty
• 1.4.1 Facts and problems
• 1.4.2 Importance of controlling task difficulty
• Chapter Two Task and Task Difficulty
• 2.1 Tasks in language teaching
• 2.1.1 Definition of language learning task
• 2.1.2 Factors influencing language learning task difficulty
• 2.2 Tasks in language testing
• 2.2.1 Definition of testing task
• 2.2.2 Considerations in task design
• 2.3 Writing tasks
• 2.3.1 Factors influencing writing test result
• 2.3.2 Writing task dimensions
• 2.4 Writing task difficulty dimensions
• 2.4.1 Grouping of writing task dimensions
• 2.4.2 A more comprehensive model
• Chapter Three Language Proficiency and Writing Task Difficulty
• 3.1 Language proficiency and writing ability
• 3.1.1 Language proficiency
• 3.1.2 Writing ability as part of language proficiency
• 3.1.3 Development of writing ability and language proficiency
• 3.2 Development of language proficiency and English writing ability among Chinese students
• 3.2.1 Language proficiency development of Chinese students
• 3.2.2 Development of English writing ability among Chinese students
• 3.3 Empirical studies
• 3.3.1 Study One: The TEM4 survey
• 3.3.2 Study Two: The entrance examination survey
• 3.4 Framework to evaluate linguistic difficulty
• 3.4.1 A language-oriented framework for writing task design
• 3.4.2 Framework to evaluate linguistic difficulty of writing tasks
• Chapter Four Topical Knowledge and Writing Task Difficulty
• 4.1 Topical knowledge and language testing
• 4.2 Topical knowledge and writing performance
• 4.3 Research on writing topic
• 4.3.1 Topic selection practice in writing task design
• 4.3.2 Suggestions on selecting topics for writing assessment
• 4.3.3 Efforts made by some international tests to ensure topic quality
• 4.3.4 Research in China
• 4.4 Empirical studies
• 4.4.1 Study One
• 4.4.2 Study Two
• 4.4.3 Study Three
• 4.5 A proposed model for Topical Knowledge Difficulty evaluation
• 4.6 Conclusion
• Chapter Five Discourse Mode and Writing Task Difficulty
• 5.1 Defining discourse mode
• 5.1.1 Genre
• 5.1.2 Other important concepts
• 5.2 Classifying English writing according to discourse mode
• 5.2.1 General classification by discourse mode
• 5.2.2 Fine distinction by patterns of exposition
• 5.2.3 Chinese study of discourse mode
• 5.3 Importance of discourse modes for language testing
• 5.3.1 Discourse modes and test authenticity
• 5.3.2 Discourse modes and actual writing performance
• 5.4 Empirical studies
• 5.4.1 Study One
• 5.4.2 Study Two
• 5.4.3 Study Three
• 5.4.4 An exposition-argumentation discourse difficulty model
• 5.5 Conclusion: A model of discourse-mode difficulty
• Chapter Six Prompt, Time Limit and Writing Task Difficulty
• 6.1 Rhetorical condition
• 6.1.1 Definition of rhetorical condition
• 6.1.2 Significance of rhetorical condition for writing
• 6.1.3 Rhetorical specification in testing of writing
• 6.1.4 Empirical studies
• 6.1.5 Model to evaluate rhetorical condition difficulty
• 6.2 Stimulus material
• 6.2.1 Types of stimulus material usually used in writing tests
• 6.2.2 Significance of stimulus material for writing tests
• 6.2.3 Empirical studies
• 6.3 Prompt wording
• 6.3.1 Significance of prompt wording
• 6.3.2 Suggestions on prompt wording
• 6.3.3 Empirical studies
• 6.3.4 Model to evaluate prompt difficulty
• 6.4 Time allowed
• 6.4.1 Impact of time allowed on test performance
• 6.4.2 Empirical studies
• 6.4.3 Model to evaluate time difficulty
• 6.5 Conclusion
• Chapter Seven Conclusion
• 7.1 The general writing task difficulty （WTD） framework
• 7.2 Suggestions for using the framework
• 7.2.1 Studying test purpose
• 7.2.2 Studying students
• 7.3 Suggestions for future research
• 7.3.1 Expanding scope of discourse mode
• 7.3.2 Including more aspects of test situation
• 7.3.3 Conducting more validation studies
• Bibliography
• Appendix